The Dreaded LSAT: Here's what is apparently really really helping me →
I’m noticing that I’m getting more and more questions right. No incorrect answer in the first 18-20 questions in the logical reasoning sections.
Here’s why I’m getting better at them!
1. I am taking notes, creating presentations and teaching other what I learn. This lets all of the information…
Main Point Questions (by kekojones12)
Main Point Questions (by kekojones12)
Conditional Reasoning… Part 7
Diagramming Either/Or Statements
Either/or in the LSAT world means at least one of the two. In the real world it has come to mean one or the other.
The LSAT definition allows for the possibility that both elements can occur. In this case, the either/or statement is a conditional statement because at least one of the terms MUST occur. If one fails to occur then the other MUST occur.
Example: Either John or Jack will attend the party. There are at least three different outcomes in this scenario. 1. ~John —> Jack 2. ~Jack —> John 3. Both John and Jack attended the party.
Sometimes on the LSAT, the authors will tell you that both conditions cannot occur at the same time. You may see this on the Logic Games section of the test.
Example: Either Cindy or Clarice will attend the party but not both: 1. ~Cindy —> Clarice 2. ~Clarice —> Cindy 3. Cindy —> ~Clarice 4. Clarice —> ~Cindy
Multiple Sufficient and Necessary Conditions
So far we’ve seen only conditional statements with one sufficient condition and one necessary condition. However, there can be conditional statements with multiple sufficient and necessary conditions.
Example: “to graduate from Throckmorton College, you must be both smart and resourceful”
Graduate —> Smart and Resourceful or G —> S and R
Finding the contrapositive can be difficult. But think of it like this, if either one of those conditions is not met, then you can’t graduate from Throckmorton. So the contrapositive of G —> S and R would be ~S or ~R —> ~G
Another way to think of the contrapositive for multiple sufficient and necessary conditions. In the original statement BOTH smarts and resourcefulness are required in to order to graduate. If you only have one of the two, then you can’t graduate because according to the original statement, you need both.
So when diagramming the contrapositive instead of “and” we use “or” and the vice versa.
Example: “To graduate from Throkmorton College, you must be smart or resourceful”
Graduate —> Smart OR Resourceful or G —> S or R
Contrapositive: ~S and ~R —> ~G
Let’s take a look at conditional statements with multiple sufficient conditions.
Example: “If you are rich and famous, then you are happy”
Rich and Famous —> Happy or R & F —> H
Contrapositive: ~H —> ~ R or ~F
Example: “If you are rich or famous, then you are happy”
Rich or Famous —> Happy or R or F —> H
Contrapositive: ~H —> ~R and ~F
The Double Arrow
So far we’ve seen the arrows pointed in only one direction, but there are some statements that produce arrows that point in both directions. These arrows (<——>) are also known as biconditionals.
These arrows indicate that each term is both the sufficient and necessary condition for the statement.
Example: “Ann will attend if only if Basil attends.”
This biconditional statement contains two conditional (hence biconditional) indicators, “if” and “only if.” Because the two conditional indicators are connected by “and” this creates two conditional statements.
1. A if B or Basil —> Ann
2. A only if B Ann —> Basil
Combined the two statements create the double arrow: A <——>B. Only two scenarios are possible under this double arrow:
1. Ann and Basil both attend
2. Neither Ann nor Basil attend
Any scenario where one of the two attends but the other does not is impossible.
On the LSAT, the double arrow (biconditional) is typically introduced in any of the following ways:
1. “if and only if” example: Pam gets a new toy if and only if Tony gets a new toy
2. “vice versa” example: If Tony gets a new toy, then Pam gets a new toy and vice versa
3. repeating and reversing the terms. Example: If Tony gets a new toy, then Pam gets a new toy and if Pam gets a new toy, then Tony gets a new toy.
Trick: If you encounter a double arrow conditional statement in the Logical Reasoning sections of the test, assume that you will be tested on your knowledge of the double arrow and attack the answer choices accordingly. Remember you can mark off the answer choices in which only one of the two conditions occur. Either both conditions occur or neither occur.
The Double Not Arrow
This is really something you will see in Formal Logic, but you need to know it and it does apply to conditional reasoning.
Just as the double arrow indicates that two terms must occur together, the double not arrow indicates that two terms CANNOT occur together.
Example: If Gomez runs for president, then Hong will not run for president
G —> ~H repeat
H —> ~G contrapositive
According to the diagram, only one of the two can run for president but not both. You can use the two diagrams above and that would be fine. However, you need to understand what the double not arrow is for Formal Logic.
G <—|—>H means the same as the two statements: G —> ~H and H—> ~G
The double not arrow only prohibits one scenario—that the two terms occur together. Using the Gomez/Hong example from PowerScore, her are the possible outcomes:
1. G —>~H
2. H—>~ G
3. Neither G nor H run for president
Conditional Reasoning (Part 7)
Finally, we are at the end!!!!! This section was sooooo long! And when I looked through Formal Logic, I wanted to kill myself. Seriously. It’s really long and a lot of words!
Diagramming Either/Or Statements
Either/or in the LSAT world means at least one of the two. In the real world it has come to mean one or the other.
The LSAT definition allows for the possibility that both elements can occur. In this case, the either/or statement is a conditional statement because at least one of the terms MUST occur. If one fails to occur then the other MUST occur.
Example: Either John or Jack will attend the party. There are at least three different outcomes in this scenario. 1. ~John à Jack 2. ~Jack à John 3. Both John and Jack attended the party.
Sometimes on the LSAT, the authors will tell you that both conditions cannot occur at the same time. You may see this on the Logic Games section of the test.
Example: Either Cindy or Clarice will attend the party but not both: 1. ~Cindy à Clarice 2. ~Clarice à Cindy 3. Cindy à ~Clarice 4. Clarice à ~Cindy
Multiple Sufficient and Necessary Conditions
So far we’ve seen only conditional statements with one sufficient condition and one necessary condition. However, there can be conditional statements with multiple sufficient and necessary conditions.
Example: “to graduate from Throckmorton College, you must be both smart and resourceful”
Graduate à Smart and Resourceful or G à S and R
Finding the contrapositive can be difficult. But think of it like this, if either one of those conditions is not met, then you can’t graduate from Throckmorton. So the contrapositive of G à S and R would be ~S or ~R à ~G
Another way to think of the contrapositive for multiple sufficient and necessary conditions. In the original statement BOTH smarts and resourcefulness are required in to order to graduate. If you only have one of the two, then you can’t graduate because according to the original statement, you need both.
So when diagramming the contrapositive instead of “and” we use “or” and the vice versa.
Example: “To graduate from Throkmorton College, you must be smart or resourceful”
Graduate à Smart OR Resourceful or G à S or R
Contrapositive: ~S and ~R à ~G
Let’s take a look at conditional statements with multiple sufficient conditions.
Example: “If you are rich and famous, then you are happy”
Rich and Famous à Happy or R & F à H
Contrapositive: ~H à ~ R or ~F
Example: “If you are rich or famous, then you are happy”
Rich or Famous à Happy or R or F à H
Contrapositive: ~H à ~R and ~F
The Double Arrow
So far we’ve seen the arrows pointed in only one direction, but there are some statements that produce arrows that point in both directions. These arrows (ßà) are also known as biconditionals.
These arrows indicate that each term is both the sufficient and necessary condition for the statement.
Example: “Ann will attend if only if Basil attends.”
This biconditional statement contains two conditional (hence biconditional) indicators, “if” and “only if.” Because the two conditional indicators are connected by “and” this creates two conditional statements.
1. A if B or Basil à Ann
2. A only if B Ann à Basil
Combined the two statements create the double arrow: A ßàB. Only two scenarios are possible under this double arrow:
1. Ann and Basil both attend
2. Neither Ann nor Basil attend
Any scenario where one of the two attends but the other does not is impossible.
On the LSAT, the double arrow (biconditional) is typically introduced in any of the following ways:
1. “if and only if” example: Pam gets a new toy if and only if Tony gets a new toy
2. “vice versa” example: If Tony gets a new toy, then Pam gets a new toy and vice versa
3. repeating and reversing the terms. Example: If Tony gets a new toy, then Pam gets a new toy and if Pam gets a new toy, then Tony gets a new toy.
Trick: If you encounter a double arrow conditional statement in the Logical Reasoning sections of the test, assume that you will be tested on your knowledge of the double arrow and attack the answer choices accordingly. Remember you can mark off the answer choices in which only one of the two conditions occur. Either both conditions occur or neither occur.
The Double Not Arrow
This is really something you will see in Formal Logic, but you need to know it and it does apply to conditional reasoning.
Just as the double arrow indicates that two terms must occur together, the double not arrow indicates that two terms CANNOT occur together.
Example: If Gomez runs for president, then Hong will not run for president
G à ~H repeat
H à ~G contrapositive
According to the diagram, only one of the two can run for president but not both. You can use the two diagrams above and that would be fine. However, you need to understand what the double not arrow is for Formal Logic.
G ß|àH means the same as the two statements: G à ~H and Hà ~G
The double not arrow only prohibits one scenario—that the two terms occur together. Using the Gomez/Hong example from PowerScore, her are the possible outcomes:
1. G à~H
2. Hà~ G
3. Neither G nor H run for president
Does it really matter what others think?
© John Kernick
Cold Watermelon Soup Recipe
Contributed by Jamie Bissonnette
I binged today…
It’s been a while since I posted. Here’s the update. I haven’t binged in a while, maybe two weeks? I stopped monitoring my food. I’m still on step two. I have changed the way I eat. I don’t eat while reading a book or watching TV. Even when I’m out by myself at a cafe. I focus on how the food tastes.
Today was my first binge in a while. I think it’s because I was stressed about money and overwhelmed with that mount of stuff that I have to do.
On the plus size, I’m down 20lbs.
My new ‘do
I think my body is responding to this my stop binge eating program… I start starving if I go longer than 5 hours without eating. I mean I have a headache, I’m passing out, kind of starvation.
Side note: I’m really need to stop eating in front of my computer and watching tv shows. I need to just sit and savior my food. I don’t know how that helps you binge less.
Side note: I’m starting mediation tomorrow. I’m nervous but excited. Hopefully it will help with lack of motivation to go work out. You’d think that having a monthly gym membership should be motivation enough…
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